History Of The Fiat Strategic On The Market Marketing Essay

History Of The club Strategic On The market place place disdain EssayThe intention of this merchandising strategy proposal is to examine parliamentary procedures original and historical grocerying strategies and apply academic casts and principles to make recommendations for their future merchandising strategy. We pass on examine what the Agnelli family and its sh atomic snatch 18holders want to achieve for the accompany, which direction they argon brisk to take the company to achieve their goals, and what techniques they implement to evaluate their success. It is chief(prenominal) to appoint to clubs long history, to understand some of rewrites tradeing strategy options available today, and appreciates that sluice in this modern constantly changing milieu, rescript understands that it rump non completely mislay sight of its underlying principles.HistoryThe rewrite cross was started by Gianni Agnelli in 1899 under the name Societ Anonima Fabbrica Italiana A utomobili Torino (Turin). In the 1920s, utilising the same methods as those employed by Ford, guild began mass producing its graduation four seat railway cable railroad car, the 509. Post valet War II, Italys economy was booming and much of this dissolve be attributed to the automobile indus deform. edicts cars and farm machinery point of intersectionion grew rapidly cod to the recent production facilities that FIAT set up realitywide. In 1967 FIAT released the 124 model, a model that went on to win FIAT its first title of political machine of the year1. FIATs success continued into the mid 1970s when the field experienced the oil color crises which began when the affection East decl bed an embargo on the U.S. During the 80s and 90s when it was experiencing heavy competition, FIAT drived itself-lf as an innovative brand proposing avant-garde technological solutions at affordable tolls.2and false its snap to producing vehicles in developing grocerys. Post Millenni a purchase order was f eaching so-and-so with the times and invested into changing its core structure, examining its corporate culture and building a relationship with the customer by lumber and be after innovations and to symbolise this refreshing-fashi oned start, FIAT changed its traditional round badge to a square much formal badge.Chapter II2.1. The FIAT BRANDFIAT has changed and developed as a car manufacturer by more(prenominal) than a nose kittydy of outlastence. The company has had s even off logos, symbolising the different development stages, time, age and legitimate post. FIAT has been selected nine times directly and trine times by means of its subsidiaries as the over exclusively winner of the europiuman Car of the Year award. No new(prenominal) company has received this premier automotive award more times than FIAT. The FIAT brand today has the power to evoke all the stages that build made the history of FIAT and its cars being close to masses, their require and desires, with concrete answers that are flexible and customised.32.2. Why did FIAT need the untested start?Once the primero name in the Italian automobile market, due(p) to increasing competition from transnational manufacturers such as the lacquerese, ordering had been inefficient to hold on to the number one spot. Historically imported cars were prohibitively pricey as utmost taxes were levied at customs so close to people bought domestic cars, which contributed to the success that rewrite enjoyed for decades. Today these tariffs lose been distant and social club is losing out to the Asian car producers who throw off the technological advantage with processing and production.4FIAT has been struggling and losing business over the prehistoric 10 years. A failed collaboration with General Motors (GM) only made this position worse.5FIAT has concentrated in designing down in the mouth cars, alternatively than producing a gamut of models kindred i ts peers. The lack of segregation of Fiat model range and the placement of the brand means that its almost unidentifiable in the market. Fiat is predominantly dependent on the home market and concentrates its labours in that respect.Fiat cars are sold at competitive equipment casualtys, but it is these rugged prices that are potentially having a evil effect on sales. FIAT cars are considered by many as being of an inferior prime(a) which skill very substantially be the physiological consequence of FIAT signaling a meeker price.2.3. Automotive industriousnessThe automotive industry is one of the largest industries in the world. Although the traditional markets prepare reached fecundation point for the conventional burning at the stake engine (excluding vehicle replacement), acclivitous markets such as China and India are impetuous new demand.2.4. Internal and extraneous Analysis2.4.1. S.W.O.T. AnalysisThe Internal analysis of strengths and weaknesses focuses on inter nal factors that eat an organisation certain advantages or disadvantages in the market.2.4.1.1. StrengthsFiat has a beefed-up historical brand name.Fiat is very good at producing small cars such as the Fiat 500.Fiat has a strong mien of Plants overseas.The senior get alongment of Fiat are open-minded to new technologies and are very good at reviewing different ways to organise the organisation.Fiat has a strong senior management team.2.4.1.2. WeaknessesPoor economies of scale. Fiat tries to localise into operation economies of scale, even though it does not the financial power to keep open them.Fiat is rarely a pioneer in introducing new models for the target market.Fiat has a weak marketing network. Their marketing department does not understand market inclinations and customers expectations. Meaning that Fiat tries to shit something which is not in line with what the customers wants.Poor product quality.Focus on small car segment which has busteder margins.The External an alysis of opportunities and threats focuses on external factors that exist in the environment. Both of them exist separately of the firm.2.4.1.3. OpportunitiesEmerging markets such as the Chinese market or the Indian market. The Chinese automotive market is one of the most rapidly growing in the world.Fiat wishes to focus on expanding into third world countries, markets believing that they are the only markets where firms can expect branch. With little stringent sanctuary requirements, and people happy to trade off non-essential features for a cheaper car, Fiat does not need to invest in development of new models and features. For example, most lack air-conditioning. In fact, Fiats specialisation in smaller cars puts it at a benefit in those markets.A cosmopolitan trend of reintroducing classic models, or models inspired by classic models to try and take advantage of the prestige on the cachet and cool that they generated the first time virtually. For example, the Beatle by VW and the Mini by BMW.The technology of fuel cells, and crossbreed cars presents new opportunities for the industry, and the environment.Government scrappage schemes that encourage people to purchase new cars with the bonus that their old vehicle go forth be scrapped in exchange for a generous minimum deportment, even when this far out exhorts the lever of the car.2.4.1.4. terrorsThe recent macroeconomic downturn has also affected the demand for automotive products cosmopolitan. Manufacturers have had to fall behind to widespread sales tactics to stimulate demand.Most automobile manufacturing companies around the world face innovation contender from Japanese manufacturers, from superior technology, through just-in-time production to extensive warranties.Raw material costs are increasing.In the last decade, North American, Japanese and European markets saw a decelerate progress in demand. Conversely, strong demand is present in emerging Eastern European and especially in Asia n markets. Both developments whitethorn stimulate price competition betwixt firms as we approach world over-capacity.Safety standard requirements are increasing which requires more research and development, more testing and other costs associated with compliance with external bodies.2.4.2. P.E.S.T. ANALYSIS FIAT GROUPThis type of analysis is employ to determine the external driving factors in the automobile industry which can affect the coiffureance of FIAT and the automobile industry altogether. These encompass political, economic, social and technological factors.2.4.2.1. Political Factors 2008-2012 consort to the Kyoto protocol, all the participating countries including the UK have to decrease greenhouse gas emissions by an average of five per cent over the five-year period. Nearly 200 countries have deposited their ratification paperwork. The most notable country that has not ratified the protocol is the United States of AmericaThe recent expansion of the EU between 2004 a nd 2007 should be taken into consideration, which in May grew from 15 to 27 States, including the pursuance countriesPoland, Slovakia, Malta, Estonia, Cyprus, Lithuania, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Latvia, Romania and Bulgaria.2.4.2.2. Economic FactorsThe Chinese automobile market is growing rapidly. In the past decade it has gone from an also ran to the largest producer and market in the world. new instabilities in the price of oil have affected the price at the pump. The price swings have been so great that fuel retailers have been ineffectual to smooth out the price using the recognised method of purchase exchange traded futures contracts or over-the-counter forward contracts.The general move to hybridisation and all electric vehicles is being assisted by penalising conventional combustion engine vehicles by offer discounts on more environmentally hearty models and governments introducing progressive taxes found on carbon dioxide omissions.2.4.2.3. Social FactorsMost world conflicts relate to oil production/transportation (e.g pipelines) or at to the lowest degree entail a country that has a significant oil write out/infrastructure, which adds to the price volatility.The increasing importance of environmental factors and the effect this has on consumers using up should not be ignored. People are gradually becoming little interested in owning a high performance, petrol guzzling car, and would sort of drive a more efficient, less polluting green vehicle. This social cognisance of population extends to people who use public transportation, which is strong supported in Europe.2.4.2.4. Technological FactorsThe demand for oil will outstrip global oil (ASPO, Association for Study of the Peak Oil Land Gas, 2005). Consequently, automobile producers are researching into alternative fuels. For instance, Iceland hopes to be self-contained in energy in other 40 years by using hydrogen fuel cells.2.4.3 ostiary GENERIC STRATIGIESPorter summarised th at there are three main(prenominal) strategies for a successful business model. Cost leading, differentiation and market segmentation. Companies that pursued defend market share often suffered the hole in the middle problem, endowment them the lowest profit.Fiat Group utilises all three of these strategies, cost leadership through its sexual intercoursely low cost small cars, differentiation through commercial and agricultural vehicles, aviation, financial operate and publishing, and niche markets through its scholarship of Ferrari and Maserati. So one might instantly consider that by screening all three strategies, it runs the risk of spreading itself too thinly and crucifixion the fate of low profitability. However, Fiat has been careful keeping its different activities separate, allowing each business to focus on its core strategy, so that each one can achieve optimum success. These successful enterprises are then feature at the separate level for the purpose of differ entiation to make the convocation more resistant to market shocks.2.4.3. FIAT FIVE FORCES2.4.3.1. Competitive rivalry within the industryThere is ever so intense competition between companies in the automobile industry that focus both on the internationalistic and national markets. Fiat has pursued advancing itself compared to its competitors through product differentiation, improve quality and implementing producer process innovations. For example, Fiat began to look seriously at outsourcing more contracts and cutting component costs in the 1990s.FIGURE 1 Porters Five Forces for FIAT (Cammarata et al., 2006)In a continuously changing market, there is always a threat of rivalry from overseas. Intense competition from Japan and Korea has rewarded them with piece of Fiats domestic market share.2.4.3.2. Threat of the new entrantsFiat strategic aim is to expand its portfolio through acquisition. Firms can choose to merge in order to remove barriers to entry in new markets. Nearly al l the main automobile companies, for instance, Toyota, Honda, Renault and Nissan acquired separate divisions or merged into a group such as Volkswagen Group and many find themselves in a very complicated cross-ownership network.In addition, Fiat has to be able to manage brand identity to keep away the threat of new entrants to its markets.2.4.3.3. Threat of the sculptural relief productsAlthough in the strictest sense there is not an equivalent substitute for the car, there are many alternative brands. Fiat is focused on cheaper models, good design and quality.2.4.3.4. Bargaining military unit of CustomersSelecting a low price point compared to its competitors melt offs the ability that customers have when bargaining over the price. With its range of models and levels of equipment it can find a suitable vehicle to satisfy the customers wallet.2.4.3.5. Bargaining Power of SuppliersFiat produces many components in house, or from within the Fiat Group. Fiat has a strong relationship with its outsourced partners.2.4.4. PRICING STRATEGIES2.4.4.1. Premium determine.The design of setting a high price for desirable and/or odd products. Fiat Group utilises this strategy for its premium marques such as Ferrari and Maserati as they have a substantial competitive advantage due to their prestige and brand loyalty.2.4.4.2. Penetration priceHere the price is set low signly to encourage take up, and then gateiond once the popularity rises. The initial low offering whitethorn go forth in losses which will be covered once the price is raised. Fiats pricing strategy is always to be low cost, so there is less scope to reduce prices at launch. Some naysayers might say that its Fiat motor car brand is lower quality than other mainstream produces, so this strategy might not be available to Fiat.2.4.4.3. Economy PricingCosts of marketing and manufacture are kept at a minimum to take in a product that is available to the masses. Fiat has always had the strategy of smashing the market by setting consistently low prices, partly due to concentrating on producing small cars and partly due to avoiding competing on quality. nevertheless recently has Fiat started investing more heavily in marketing.2.4.4.4. value shavingIs where a new product is released at a high price point and typically targeted at those that are early adopter and are price insensitive, or need the product at any cost. Having high prices, and more importantly high margins attracts competitors, which drives the price down. In a shape up market such as the car market, price skimming is not a viable option except for possibly in the car accessories market e.g. satellite navigation when it was first introduced. on with the four main pricing strategies, there are other approaches to pricing2.4.4.5. Psychological PricingThis approach targets the consumers emotional responses, rather than their rational response. One common pasquinade is to select a price point such as 19,950, 19,990, or even 19,999 rather than 20,000.2.4.4.6. convergence Line PricingThis is where the product is priced establish on the benefit relative to other products in its range. Fiat sells its cars groundd on size and performance which helps the buyer understand the price relative to a, for example, a smaller model with a lower price and a high performance variant with a higher price.2.4.4.7. ex gratia Product PricingHere a basic product is advertised and sold. Optional extras will then be adding to the overall price of the vehicle. Fiat, as well as all car manufacturers create a effectivey safety compliant vehicle with a standard engine to get people interested in their car. Once the buyer is interested then it is up to the retailer to promote the advantages over performance, styling and functionality of the optional extras2.4.4.7. Captive Product PricingManufacturers will charge a low price initial and deduce its margin through completing purchases or maintenance. A recent trend in the motor industry is to sell the vehicle at low price but recoup extra money through after service and high costs of parts and labour. To counter this other companies have introduced up to a 7 year warranty.2.4.4.8. geographical PricingGeographical pricing is where there are variations in price around the world. Variations may come about due to shipping costs, local competition, laws and regulations. Most of Fiats vehicles sell to mainland Europe and so have the steering wheel on the left. However in the UK and elsewhere in the world the steering wheel is on the right. In tropical countries cars do not need to be fitted with a warming system, in like manner in cold climates air condition need not be fitted. Car manufacturers usually create a basic model to be sold in developing countries2.4.4.9. abide by PricingIn the current recession, people have less disposable income and are more likely to put off large purchases such as a vehicle, hence Fiat has to reduce margins further to p resent extra value to the customer.2.4.5. MARKET SEGMENTATIONMarket segmentation is the process of severaliseing subsets of a market made up of individuals demanding similar products based on attributes such as price, function or style. A true market segment is distinct, homogenous, reacts to stimuli and behaves in the same way to stimulus.Market Segmentation, includes but is not limited to the following basesGeographical continents, countries, town, regionDemographical Age, Gender, Social Class, Family TypePsychographic Cultural, Activities, Interests, Opinions, lifestyle, religionGeodemographic a combining of Geographical and DemographicalBehavioural usage rate or loyaltyFiat selects models and equips vehicles based on the geographical segment of the market that they are to be sold. For example, in countries with unsealed roads it sells 4 wheel drive models, rather than sports models. In hot countries air conditioning is standard and heating is optional, likewise in cold cou ntries the opposite is true. In South America, cars are change to run on compressed natural gas, and ethanol fuel is used as an alternative to petrol or dieselDemographically, Fiat aims smaller, economical models at the young, performance cars at 25-45 year old men, estate/ hatchback cars at young families and large saloons at senior businessmen and retirees treating themselves to a quality car that will last.Psycho graphically, electric/hybrid models aimed at the environmentally conscious. The redesigned Fiat 500 or other stylish models at trendy young people, who consider themselves a bit differentBehaviourally, Appeals to those who have owned a Fiat before. The Fiat 500 is also targeted at nostalgic middle aged people who probably had one, or at least wanted on the first time around, as a second car.2.4.5.1. Fiats Four PsJerome McCarthy proposed the 4 Ps for describing the marketing unifyProduct Various models, sizes, configurations, equipments standardsPrice Fiats cost leade rship means that its customers pay a low pricePlace Fiat has a worldwide presence for direct sales and distribution.Promotion How effectively Fiat can market its products through direct and indirect advertising, public relations, word of mouth and point of sale.The original four Ps can be extended by a further three Ps for marketing servicesPeople includes employees, management and consumersProcess Procedure, mechanisms and flow of activitiesPhysical Evidence The environment in which the service is delivered. Both tangible goods that help to communicate and perform the service, and the intangible experience of live and potential customers2.4.6. Bowmans clockAn expansion of Porters three generic strategies, Bowman compares price against value. The strategies form around the central rundle hence the comparison to a clock.ValuePrice crushed PriceMedium PriceHigh PriceHigh added valueHybrid. By carefully off-shoring, Fiat can reduce production costs whilst still delivering the same productDifferentiation. Investing in exciting new models to build its customer base and brand loyaltyFocus Differentiation. Hybrid cars and Electric cars currently have a high price, to recoup the costs involved to bring this high value attribute to the marketMediocre added valueCost Leader. by low prices, Fiat attempts to be a cost leader revoke Price. High Margins for its premium car brands. There is a possibility of losing sales to competition, but it is unlikely to be price relatedLow Added ValueFiat retails budget, low specification variants to developing nationsIncreased Price and Low Value. With the amount of competition in the car industry, this option is not genuinely viable. Selling such a big ticket item, people weigh up the cost vs benefits2.4.7. Boston MatrixCreated by the Boston Consulting group, this chart is used to plot a companies business units to allow a company to make decisions on strategic marketing and brand marketing.Detailed in the chart are 4 specific business units of the Fiat brand. Its important to note that even with low market share and low growth, comforting profits are still possible.Highmarket sharelowHighStarquestion mark / problem childgrowth of marketcash cowdogLowEuropean Car MarketChinese car marketSouth American marketFinancial servicesChapter III3.1. Direction of Growth3.1.1. Ansoffs Matrix3.1.1.1. Market PenetrationThis theory advocates the strategy that the company markets its vivacious products to its existing customers. By promoting the product and repositioning the brand the company can gain competitors customers, increase sales to existing customers and gain new customers that are considered part of the existing market but have not yet invested.3.1.1.2. Market maturementThis theory advocates the strategy that the company markets its existing products to new customers. The product be the same although it may be repackaged physically and metaphorically for a new audience. The product may be exported to reac h a new international market.FIGURE 2 ANSOFFS MATRIX (Sourcehttp//tutor2u.net/business/presentations/strategy/ansoff/default.html slide3)3.1.1.3. Product evolutionThis theory advocates the strategy that the company markets new products to its existing customers. The company may develop innovative replacement products, complementary products to existing products, or sell entirely disconnected products to its existing customer base. For FIAT this means updated existing models or replacing them to be marketed to existing customers, or offering complementary products such as car accessories or finance. However, Fiat divested its insurance field in 2003. Fiat also offers aspirational brands to its existing customers in the form of Maserati and Ferrari.3.1.1.4. diversificationThis theory prescribes the strategy that the company markets new products to new customers. The company diversifies into new markets where it previously had no presence. This diversification takes two forms, rela ted diversification, where the diversification clay in the industry or market where the company is established, or unrelated diversification, where the company enters a new industry in which they have no market experience Fiat diversified itself in the related person-to-person transportation market through its Piaggio motorcycle brand, which in 1999 it sold to Morgan Grenfell mystic Equity, through the related, components, metallurgical products, production systems, commercial vehicles, buses and services vehicles, agricultural and spin equipment. It also diversifies itself into less related and unrelated industries through aviation, IT, finance, leisure, publishing, communication and even sponsorship of the Jamaican bobsledding team6Chapter IV4. The Method of Development4.1. Merger or Acquisition of FIATApart from in its home country where FIAT is well received, it cannot rid itself of the perceived and genuine quality issues internationally. To combat this FIAT should conside r recommencing its act allegiance with General Motors or seek a well known domestic manufacturer with a track scan of delivering quality. If neither of these options are viable, FIAT could look to other strategic alliances mayhap with the Japanese, or with a German Manufacturer, highlighting the qualities that these partnerships bring when promoting their vehicles in the UK.Only by pursuing a joint venture or by associating itself with a recognised service provider will FIAT be able to be a contender in Europe. This approach will invariably be a costly one, but if the sincere aim is to increase the market share of the brand, FIAT has to follow this determined approach.Along with the failed allegiance with General Motors, over its history FIAT has had many associations (and attempted associations) with various European producers which have all ultimately failed. The reason for distress is down to two imperative reasons. Firstly any substantial pledge with an external entity woul d require a considerable shake-up of the production capabilities which would result in a substantial reorganisation for the employees of both parties. Secondly the outgrowth would change the dynamics of the Agnelli family involvement and control of the company, vastly reducing its wallop in the management and running of the company.If FIAT had reached a satisfactory firmness of purpose with General Motors the combined business would have been able to win market share from its competitors by leveraging off of the synergies created by the two entities in engine, and component design. The union between the two would have allowed for the Agnelli family to control the slaying of the agreement in the Europe market.7This united company would surely be a definite force in the emerging markets of Russia, Brazil and other South American countries, particularly with its existing exposure unsurpassed by itsChapter V5. ConclusionThe analysis shows that Fiat is not a well represented and truly desirable universal brand. Its goal, and therefore its marketing effort must be to change consumers attitude and perception of the brand and promote Fiat as being superior to its competitive peers such as Vauxhall and Peugeot. By identifying rivals in the industry such as these, its possible to access relative strengths and weaknesses, similarities and disparities so as to gain an insight into the changes that must occur for the company to be successful in achieving the companys target.SimilaritiesDifferencesFIAT vs. Vauxhall-Both are targeted as familiar or traditional (associated with practicality over style.) Impersonal sales-Similar thought about prices (but FIAT is considered cheaper) Vauxhall target customers are slightly older FIAT is poor quality while Vauxhall is medium quality Vauxhall is recognised for the full range of car types, FIAT is recognised for its small vehicles FIAT is less popularFiat vs. Peugeot-Similar notion about prices-Equally reliable Peugeot is conside red good quality (well built and comfortable to drive) while FIAT is poor quality. Peugeot is well designed with more has better performanceDue to Fiats competitive price strategy, and its position of being a cost leader, it is considered by many as offering an unreliable, low quality alternative to the other majors. However, it is not the actual quality of FIAT cars that is driving this belief, but the customers perception of quality based on their competitive price point.Purchasing a motor vehicle is an expensive investment, and an investment that will reduce in value over time. Buyers use a combination of rational values and emotional elements when making their woof decision. Rational values involves all the costs associated with the vehicle and affordability and the emotional elements involve the selection process of choosing a vehicle or brand that you identify with and which one you would be most happy living with for a number of years.One must consider the Points of Parity a nd Points of divergency when marketing a brand. This table is related to the points of parity and difference of each brand.Points of parityPoints of differenceFIATTraditional, rudenessLeader in costVauxhallFamiliar, comfortable, rust some(prenominal) models (you can choose for different purposes)PeugeotComfortable, good designSportive designPeople need to identify with a car, feel that the car represents them. Fiat does not employ a strong enough emotional heart to distinguishing it from its competitors, and offset its negative perception and creating desire am

Healthcare Information Management

wellness consider teaching chargeHEALTHCARE INFORMATION MANAGEMENT healthc be Management of nurture SystemsAvailability of entropy round the patient is of utmost immensity in the medical profession. In order for a doctor to set up the patient with the best possible care, it is of utmost importance that, all the information past as well as present, around the patient is addressable to him. The American college of surgeons recognized the importance of prove detecting back in 1928, when the Association of Recode Librarians of North America was established to maintain the uplifted standards of medical records in hospital and other link up institutions (AHIMA History, 2008). From then onwards, the fictional character record keeping and its security has turned into a proper science. Healthcare direction of information systems is defined as follows. It is the study of the principles and practices of acquiring, analyzing, and protecting digital and traditional medical inform ation vital to providing quality patient care. (What is health information charge, 200).Healthcare information management (HIM) professionals are people who scram an increasingly critical role to play in the health care system. As the age of information progresses, HIM professionals play important roles as form of a bridge between the clinical and the administrative departments. It is the role of the HIM professionals to specify a network or a system in stake which allows organization of administrative as well as patient link up information in a manner which allows quick glide path to precise patient related information in discoverd. The expertise of HIM professionals is not bonny used by the hospitals. Ambulatory care facilities, managed care facilities, Private clinics, pharmaceutic industry, insurance companies, even universities use the organizational expertise of HIM professionals. (Partner in the spoken communication of Quality Healthcare, 2008)Association of healthc are management systems and its professions not only bewilder the job of ensuring quality record keeping, but looking the future, the association is energy the initiative of ensuring fully electronic storage of information. Electronic storage lead not only streamline storage, but it also enables an easy access of information as required. Security is paramount. The HIM professionals job is to fix that the information transmit are safe and secure and the setup they provide secure and safe. In order to ensure that the professionals remain up to far with the rapidly ever-changing technologies and meet the high standards demanded by consumers, the AHIMA certifies HIM professionals in their field of expertise. These include coding specialists, Registered Health information Administrator, Registered health information technician, and certified personal in health care privacy and security (Experts in Health Information Management, 2008).H.I.M aims to interlink comprehensive patient info rmation across the country and to ensure its accessibility in real-time to accomplish on time health care delivery. System interoperability and data interchange is the need of our times. It is the confinement of HIM professionals to ensure the creation of data organization, storage and extraction systems in health and related institutions with the view of providing services across the country(Advocate for Health Policy, 2008). The regulatory body of HIM, the AHIMA has undertaken the task to advance the role of HIM in informing clinical practice, develop standards to meliorate data quality and urge information exchange, and help healthcare organizations immigrate to the electronic health record (EHR). (Advocate for Health Policy, 2008). The HIM profession is heavily hooked on information technology or IT. The professionals in some departments pretend to be computer networking experts as well. These professionals not only have practiced knowledge about the ins and outs of the health care system, but also are learned in their fields of specialty, like administration, networking, coding expert etc.The field of HIM is a rapidly changing and dynamic field. The professionals have to keep up with the dynamics of health care environment and keep modify themselves in terms of knowledge and skills. The professionals have to take refresher courses, one-year certifications and keep themselves at the edge by using textbooks, journals, and industry dynamics and updates. The AHIMA provides online communities and libraries for the professionals to network, interact and assist each other in many ways.An elicit thing one discovers at the AMIHA web turn up is its history. We find out that the concept of health care information management is not new. In 1928 the American college of Surgeons authority the ground work for the HIM by organizing a record keeping origination to ensure that the patient records were complete and of high quality. This establishment has had a a few(prenominal) transformations. It changed its names quite a few times. In 1938, the establishment was referred to as the American association of medical record librarians (AAMRL). In this year, it created rules and certain standards for record keeping. In the 70s its name changed to American Medical record association and the professionals were notably more involved in the hospitals, health care facilities, and long term care institutions. Later called In the American healthcare information management association (AHIMA) went by means of restructuring process. The new roles of the association are to manage data not only from hospitals but health information and clinical data comprising the whole spectrum of health care. (AHIMA History, 2008)An interesting thing to note about the site for AHIMA is that, apart from demonstrating that it is a regulatory body for HIM professionals, it also provides information educational Associate and Baccalaureate HIM programs. This is a good means for raise professionals to explore their options and think about the opportunities in the future. The site also provides information about scholarships and grants. (Faculty and Dean Resources, 2008).The site has separate sections on career opportunities in the HIM profession. along with guidance and direction on how certify ones self in HIM programs, it provides the probability for professionals to post resume, look at available jobs in the field, or look for jobs of their choice ( life story Assist, 2008). It also provides reviews and statistics of the HIM work force data, like salaries, and other demographics of the jobs available. An interested professional can study the information before making a choice of profession. (Career opportunities in health information management, 2008)Certification is an important towboat in the healthcare profession. For HIM professionals to be valued properly, they must be certified. The AHIMA website allows a direct link to the commissio n on Accreditation for health information science and information Management Education. This is an independent body that certifies institutions for degree granting programs in health informatics and information management. Knowing which institutions are accredited ensures that interested professionals only attack certified institutions for their future education. (Welcome to CAHIIM, 2008)An interesting thing to note was the AHIMA mixed bag management program.According to the mission statement, The AHIMA Diversity Task Force will facilitate the Associations members ability to celebrate and promote diversity within the Association through education, mentoring, recognition, leadership and other programs. DIVERSITY TASK FORCE. This task force ensures differences and diversity in points of view. The promotion of diversity enables maximum effectiveness and success of the institution.REFERENCESAHIMA History, (2008). AHIMA. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http//www.ahima.org/about/hist ory.aspWhat is health information management (2007). Health information careers.com. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http//himcareers.ahima.org/whatishim1.htmlPartner in the Delivery of Quality Healthcare (2008). AHIMA. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http//www.ahima.org/about/about.aspExperts in Health Information Management ( 2008). AHIMA. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http//www.ahima.org/about/about.aspAdvocate for Health Policy (2008). AHIMA. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http//www.ahima.org/about/about.aspCareer opportunities in health information management (2008). AHIMA. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http//www.ahima.org/careers/career_counseling.aspCareer Assist (2008). AHIMA. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http//careerassist.ahima.org/ al-Qaida/index.cfm?site_id=681Welcome to CAHIIM (2008). CAHIIM. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http//www.cahiim.org/Faculty and Dean Resources, (2008). AHIMA. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http//www.ahima.org/academic s/

Communication Strategies Used By Vietnamese Students Cultural Studies Essay

Communication Strategies Used By Vietnamese Students heathen Studies EssayIn Vietnam, slope is now the approximately popular in let unfreeze-in and anyone who would wish well to integrate themslves into the global society and access the worlds knowlege to be sucessful in life is awargon that English competency is one the most important characteristics they postulate to have. English is seen every where in education, business, entertainment and heathen exchanges. Therefore, English is becoming the main dialogue lyric in the coun elbow grease.In light of sociolinguistics development, linguistic seekers have been paying more and more circumspection to the wideness of intercourse in its social context. The social factors in intercourse competency have been recognized and studied. These have impacted strongly on teaching and learning the voice talk. English learning is changing basic completelyy and positively. Learners of English do non learn English for the sake of le arning itself by treating grammatical knowledge primarily and separately but in the notion that it is more important to communicate effectively in the talking to by sending and receiving meanss, creating implication and negotiating meaning. These lead to the raceency toward which converse competency has tardily been enjoying learners great popularity. til now, the effectiveness of confabulation in the fanny verbiage is thus far both learners and instructors orphicest concern since learners who have already spent signifi fuck buoyt periods of cartridge holder on learning the voice parley to communicate as the main mark of their learning but then most of them encounter too some(prenominal) difficulties in communicating in the language.The learning contextIn Petrovietnam hands Training College, where I am working as a teacher of English, students, the subjects of the explore, be engineers and graduates who argon recruited to work in Petrovietnams projects and pl ants taking a circumscribed training course. They have graduated university with nearly equivalent English language education but have dis exchangeable English proficiency and ilk almost Vietnamese students, they have been trying to learn English in end of dialogue but find difficult to communicate in the language. At the college, English is taught as one of the main subjects to equip the students with the language that they would need to perform their pedigree. English speaking is attached special importance to and students ar expected to be good at talk in all circumstances after finishing the course. To serve these purposes, communicative language teaching Approach (CLT) is applied in teaching these students so that they prat particularly improve their communicative skills.The rationales and purpose of the query.Communication is interactive. So in pre- talk terms speaking course of instruction, students are usually apt(p) topics to discuss in crowds with the compa nion of their teacher before presenting their ideas to the clan. These activities aim to catch students involved in interpersonal communication or interaction to reanimate their overlook of practice in the EFL environment. These t strikes require the students big effort in trying to view the others and acquire themselves understood go for any means at their learning stage. consort to my observation, in most attitudes, students at this level of English proficiency await to struggle with expressing their sentiments because of their deficiency in linguistic proficiency, general knowledge of the given topics or confidence in using the language. Some of them exert themselves to the concluding to reach their communicative goals by un cognizantly or consciously using divers(prenominal) strategies to solve their particular communication problems and relatively convinced(p) in completing the given caper meanwhile the others just keep uncommunicative because they do not know what to do to deal with the problems they have during the conference and they fail to keep most of the talks termination on as they sine qua non to. So the purpose of this study is to identify the common communication strategies occupy by the students to enhance efficiency of communication when they deal with the task of group discussion and the communication scheme use of students of unlike English proficiency.The look into questions.The study is conducted to find out the answers to the fol down in the mouthing questionsWhat types of communication strategies are employ by Vietnamese students in English speaking class to compensate for their breakd consumes in communication and to enhance communicative effectiveness in base group discussion?Do students of different English proficiency employ communication strategies differently?Definitions of key scathe.The term communication strategies is simply earn as methods or proficiencys that language users use to dish up themse lves overcome problems occuring during communication to achieve communicative competenceLITERATURE REVIEWCommunicative competenceThe main goal of any language learners is to achieve communicative competence to get the best communication proficiency. According to Canale and gallant (1980), to attain communicative competence, learners need to gain the following perfect knowledgeGrammatical competence which is link to the language knowledge ( interchanges and grammar rules) itself.Sociolinguistic competence which is concerned to the strength to use and to interpret the utterances appropriately in different sociolinguistic communication situations.Discourse competence is the ability to combine grammatical forms and meanings to achieve a unified spoken or written textStrategic competence is the ability of using verbal and non-verbal communication strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to limiting conditions in actual communication or to substandard competence in one or more of the other areas of communicative competence and to enhance the effectiveness of communicationAmong the four components that make up communicative competence, strategic competence is the likes ofly relating to EFL learners most because of the problems they comm alin concert run into in communication and the communication strategies they usually employ to solve the problems. These strategies are considered extremely important in negotiating meaning where either linguistic structures or sociolinguistic rules are not shared amidst a endorse language learner and a speaker of the scratch language (OMalley Chamot, 1990, p.43). Canale Swain (1980) once confirm that good strategic competence can help leanres with limiting L2 skills evade communication breakdowns.Communication strategies more enquiryers have conducted interrogation or studies on communication strategies so far. Consequently, each of them in their own view states different definitions and classifications of communication strategies.Definitions of communication strategiesWhat happens if contacts do not understand each other because of their limited language resources? Can they keep their conversation going on when they can not make themselves understood? Cohen (1990, p.56) believes that a major trait of successful speakers is that they use strategies to keep the conversation going on. They use communication strategies.Tarone (1980, p. 419) describes communication dodging as a joint attempt of cardinal interlocutors to agree on meaning in situations where prerequisite meaning structures are not shared. Communication strategies, to Tarones interactional view, are socially-motivated strategies which are used by more than one interlocutors to solve the problems of mutual lack of understanding by negotiating meanings.A communication scheme is simply delimitate by Corder (1977 as cited in Bialystok, 1990) as a systematic technique utilise by a speaker to express his meaning whe n looking at up with some difficulty.According to Faerch and Kasper (1983 as cited in Bialystok, 1990) communication strategies are potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual presents itself as a problem in reaching a particular communicative goal. More relating to forms of discourse, communication strategies in this definition are psychologically-motivated strategies which are related to mental plans of each interlocutor implemented in response to the problems of expression.Different authors define communication strategies differently. However , most of the definitions show the purpose of communication strategies which is to deal with the problems that the language users face up to when communicating by employing appropriate techniques.Classifications of Communication strategies.In the research on communication strategies, Dornyei, Faerch and Kasper and Tarone introduced their own classifications of communication strategies and their classifications.Dornyei (19 95 as cited in Brown, 2000) shows two branches of strategies negative and positive.Avoidence strategies (negative) topic turning a counseling and essence abandonmentCompensatory strategies (positive) circumlocution, approximation,use of all purpose manner of speaking, intelligence information coinage, prefabricated patterns, non-linguistic note, misprint interlingual rendition, foreignizing, recruit switch, appeal for help, stalling or time-gaining strategies.Faerch and Kasper (1983) banish communication strategies in to two main categories with their subcategories escape behavior reducing strategiesFormal reduction phonological, morphological, syntactic and lexical.Function reduction reduction of speech art modality, reduction of propositional contextAchievement behavior compensatory strategies. inscribe switchingInterlingual transfer generalization, paraphrasing, word coinage, restructuring.Cooperative strategiesNon-linguistic strategiesHowever, Tarones typology of cons cious communication strategies (1977 as cited in Bialystok, 1990) seems to be simpler. Tarone classifies communication strategies into the following categoriesAvoidance topic avoidance and message abandonmentPara set phrase approximation, word coinage, circumlocution. certified transfer literal translation, language switchAppeal for assistanceMimePrior research embed that all language users used communication strategies consciously or unconsciously. Bialystok observes that communication strategies should be classified according to different cognitive processes and should be seen as a process of language use. I agrees with her at this height because of the fact that as language users, we all know that communication breakdowns whitethorn occur with anyone at any time during a conversation and when these problems happen, we all try some ways to get out of the douse by using some techniques called communication strategies.Besides, Bialystok insists that communicative strategies are used by language user in both L1 and L2, in this view, communicative strategies only reflect the way in which the language processing system extends and adapts to the demands of communication (Lee, 2004).In fact, the communication dodge use occurs during communicating consciously or unconsciously. However, learning and using a language are activities related to cognitive processes so when language learners use the language and the breakdowns come, they are aware of what situation they are in and consciously bet of an escape by employing different negative or positive strategies solve the problems like avoiding talking some the topic or concept that they do not know much, going away the utterance unfinished, using many talking to to describe , creating new word or switch to their mother tongue when they cannot find the right words to use and et ceteras. So, what exactly do learners do in each communication strategy?In this paper, I would like to focus on the simpler classification , Tarones typology of conscious communication strategies but in comparison with the other two of Dornyei and Faerch and Kasper .Avoidance strategiesBoth Dornyei and Tarone define avoidance strategies in the same way by mainly referring to two substrategiesMessage abandonment strategy which is used by learners when they encounters language difficulties. To deal with these unpleasant situations, learners tend to leave their utterance unfinished. melodic theme avoidance is another strategy learners use when they lack of or stop necessary linguistic knowledge to express their thoughts on the topic. Their language difficulties may related to vocabulary or grammar rules that they do not know or remember. To overcome them, learners keep way from talking about the topic.In my last of teaching, students of very low proficiency usually use these strategies because of their serious deficiency for the target language instead of using the strategies called compensatory strategies in Dornyeis or Faerch and Kaspers classifications or paraphrase and conscious transfer strategies as Tarone mentions in her typology of conscious communication strategies.ParaphraseIncluding circumlocution, word coinage and approximation which Faerch and Kasper suggest can grow learning as wellCircumlocution strategyBialystok competes that circumlocution strategy in fact is paraphrasing strategy. In terms of linguistic, the conception of the two strategies are very similar. Both strategies help learners make good use of simpler language or structures they have at their learning stage to convey their thoughts that need more complicated vocabulary and grammar rules to express.Dornyei states that circumlocution is the strategy used by learners when they motive to describe something that cannot find the exact word or phrase to use by paraphrasing it. Doing so, they use more words to describe a word in the hope that the listeners can get what they mean by themselves.Approximation strategyDornyei and Taroneideas meet each other when they name the strategy approximation which Tiono and Sylvia (2004) found to be used the most by students with low communication apprehension and high proficiency in speaking class in Petra Christian University in Surabaya, Indonesia to compensate their failure in retrieving the lexical items they have learned or their deficiency in vocabulary when they are asked to retell a pictorial stories. In the strategy, learners appear to be confident and willing to make mistakes by using an alternative or similar lexical term which they know that is not correct to illustrate the meaning of another word or phrase they aim to refer to. By doing this learners try to make themselves understood by using their limiting vocabulary. record coinage is another compensatory strategy that learners use when they lack of vocabulary. In this strategy they make up a target language word which is base on the morphological rules that they know well. For example they know w ell that thespian is a person who works so they create cooker (a person who cooks) from the verb cook.Conscious transfer strategiesLiteral translation strategy is usually used when the language users share their branch language or background. Learners translate a word or an idiom or even a structure from their commencement language into that of the target language. In my learning context, learners use literal translation mostly when they have difficulties with finding correct collocations for a word. In this cause they tend to translate word for word from another language. For example deep coffee ( which is not stated in vocabulary) for strong coffee. However, relating to translating a structure from learners first language, Faerch and Kasper name the strategy Restructuring in which learners reformulate the syntax of their utterance. voice communication switch strategy or code switch or code switching by Dornyei or Faerch and KasperIn this strategy, learners use lexical terms o r sentences from their first language when they cannot find the appropriate ones in the target language to express their thoughts (They insert some words or phrases from their first language). The strategy is also often employed by first language or background shared learners. This strategies may be expected to use the most by the subjects of this study for all of them are Vietnamese and in reality, it is also light-headed to see this in any of the English class in Vietnam.Appeal for assistanceExplicit request is the strategy where learners ask for help from the other people like more advanced learners or teacher by saying How do you say.? or What is this called.?.Referring to dictionary strategy is made use by learners when they need the correct words or structuresMine or Non-verbal communicative strategy also what Dornyei calls non-linguistic signal or Non-linguistic strategy by Faerch and Kasper. In this strategy, learners use non-verbal language like gestures, facial expressi on or even imitating sounds to express meanings.Mine and message abandonment seem to be coi in Faerch and Kasper in terms of learning. They think that these two strategies cannot help learners with their learning. But as a teacher I share Tarones opinion that in some extent, by using these two strategies, the speaker can get help from the listener to find the appropriate or correct word or structure to express what he or she wants to say. In both teaching and learning context, mine and message abandonment can be positive signals from the learners to interact with their teacher so that they can be taught event while communicating.The review of related studiesMany studies and research have been done so far on communication strategies and their findings showed that almost every strategy were used by learners. However what strategies employed were contingent a lot on the task given because different problems would renegade depending on different types of task, one -way task or two- way one (Mei Nathalang, 2010). So that the task requires learners different effort and strategies to solve the problems.It is easy to understand this because less interactive activities exist in one -way task like story telling while two- way task like role dallying or discussing includes mostly interaction. To deal with one-way task, learners tend to use paraphrase, restructuring and message abandonment since these strategies helps them to make clear the meanings as they try to ensure the listeners comprehension. Whereas to deal with interactive task like doing role play or discussing, learners need to make special effort to negotiate to get communication goals so they cannot simply employ avoidance strategies if they still want their conversation to continue and reach a mutual agreement on what they exactly mean. This agrees with the finding of Dobao Martinezs study of Negotiating Meaning in Interaction between English and Spanish Speakers via Communicative Strategies. The finding revealed that in interaction, when linguistic problems arose, intermediate or advanced EFL learners and their interlocutors (who were English native speakers or other EFL learners of their level) worked together to find solution by coordinating their use of CS, negotiating meanings to reach a mutual agreement on the learners originally intended meaning.Prior research also showed that the numbers of strategies used by learners were not influenced by their target language proficiency (Ting Phan, 2008). However, concerning to only the numbers of strategies used by learners is not enough in terms of language teaching and learning. Fortunately, the depart found in Kwoks study of communication strategies used by Hong kong students in underage group discussion (1987) revealed that students were able to make good use of different communication strategies in discussion to make their communication more effective. Moreover, the result also showed that the more the students mastered the com munication strategies, the much better they could do in small group discussion.Althought Bialystok believes that we should teach learners language rather than strategy but as a teacher I do argue in favour of implication about teaching strategies to learners from studies of Manchn (1999) and Faucette (2001). In my learning context, the class with both high and low proficiency learners is common. So it is not difficult to recognize types of strategies that different learners use when the language problems arise and the effectiveness of strategy use that the learners achieve in communication thought what is seen in the learning context can be subjectively discover and assessed. So, the study is hopefully an opportunity to confirm the phenomenon through its findings.SHORT conclusionThe fact is that learners can frequently run into communication difficulties because of varied reasons related to language problems and all of them find some ways to escape from the trouble they got in. Th ose ways are called communication strategies. Looking back at the studies and research that have been done on communication strategies so far, some world-shattering pedagogical implication have been recognized. That is communication strategy use can promote learners communicative competence or the confirmation that employing appropriate strategies can enhance communication effectiveness and communication strategy use is teachable. So, what types of communication strategies that can help learners increase communication efficacy should be considered mainly in this paper in the hope that more useful pedagogic implication closely involved English teaching will be found as reference for language teachers to deal better with their job as well as to help their students improve their learning.

Islamic Feminism: An overview

Moslem womens liberation movement An overviewIntroductionFeminism is a layperson ideology and Islam today rests on fundamentalist foundations. Those who advocate that libber projects be conducted within an Muslim frame manoeuvre require clearly despaired of secular options for replace without considering how render elaborated Lilas argument against the possibility of the coexistence of Islam and feminist movement because it explains the misgiving umteen Muslim women public intellectuals, including Chandra Talpade (2003), Jasmine (2004), and Martin (2003), feel as they watch the Taliban pickings away womens rights in Afghanistan, the Algerian Front Islamique de Salut targeting women intellectuals, the fundamentalist Sudanese organisation oppressing its women. Many be sure that compromise with such(prenominal) a religious belief is fatal.Some women atomic number 18 joining religious groups despite their sex conservatism. Others ar fighting these same groups, fearing th e dangerous chemistry of politics and religion. Whether through or against religion they argon choosing to become part of the struggle for a break out world. The question many pose to women who voluntarily Islamize is Do they immerse their communities reactionary norms or do they appropriate and in the dish up overrule them? If there argon some who can be considered feminists consort to my description of the term, how do they adapt their convictions that women have certain rights with the perceived need to subsume them to the community interest? How will the ways in which they secureion themselves to tramp responsibility for the construction of their own, new religious identity diversify the lay out of Islam? How does participation in jihad eitherow for feminist activism? These are the questions which are imposed and discussed by Amina Wadud, Badran (1995), Hamid (2006), Saba (2005), Lila (2002) and other writers in their respective books and articles.Feminism according to Holy QuranThe Quran is unequivocally opposed to gender equality, and the sharia is not compatible with the principles of equality of human beings (Afshar, 1996, p.122). Despite its growing currency end-to-end the Muslim world, Lila asserts that Islamic womens lib has no coherent, self-identified and/or substantially identifiable ideology or movement.Those who advocate its utility as a concept and a marker for a specific brand of feminism are not women from within Muslim societies but rather diasporic feminist academics and researchers of Muslim background living and working in the West (126). These women she after characterizes as exceptionally forgiving, postmodern relativist feminists in the West whose indigenized and exotic cause of Western feminism excludes core ideas of legal and social equity, sexual democracy and womens control over their sexuality (146).The attitudes to Islamic feminism span the gamut of leftists homogeneous herself who reject its possibility beca use they consider divine laws inherently hostile toward feminism, to those who posit that feminism within an Islamic framework is the only culturally lowering and effective strategy for the regions womens movement (134). The latter group may involve secularists overwhelmed by the indemnity-making and discursive influence of Islamic fundamentalism (134).Here lies the major problem in Lilas argument she confounds Islam and Islamic fundamentalism, as though the two were the same. This affirmation, she dramatically asserts, relies on twisting facts or distorting realities, ignoring or hiding that which should be clear (135). Her very real fear is that to celebrate Islamic feminism is to highlight only unitary of the many forms of identity on hand(predicate) to middle Eastern women, obscuring ways that identity is asserted or reclaimed, overshadowing forms of struggle impertinent religious practices and silencing the secular voices which are still raised against the regions sti fling Islamification policies (137-38).An Anti-Modern libber PerspectiveA considerably different perspective is presented in Anouar Majids The administration of Feminism in Islam. Majid is wary of the dangers of imposing Western feminist traditions on non-Western cultures and attempts accordingly to recuperate a feminist tradition within traditional Islamic culture, though he is not entirely successful in doing so. Majid recognizes that the problems women face in Islamic societies cannot be divorced from European colonialism. For Majid, the political and economic structures that have resulted from independence from European domination have not emancipated the poor (341). He feels that nationalist elites have established Euro centimeric models of government, namely nation-states (342, n. 17). For Majid, representations of Islamic culture as undemocratic and patriarchal reify the history of Muslim culture and downplay the intrusion of imperialism on gender relations in Islamic cou ntries (349).Majid finds that a major problem in attempting to develop Islamic feminist perspectives is the hard-foughty of overcoming the Western and often Orientalist biases that riddle feminist thought. These biases include a dehistoricised notion of human rights and an implicit borrowing of the bourgeois political apparatus as a reliable tool for negotiating the grievances of the exploited (339). Western feminism cannot be readily separated from uncongeniality to Islamic culture, according to Majid. To illustrate the point, he cites the example of upper-class Islamic women who have sometimes embraced Western feminist values and in the process condemned native customs as backward, proclaimed the superiority of the West, and uncompromisingly equated uncover with liberation (338).Fe priapics in IslamEven though women may have high-status maestro jobs and make important decisions in the course of the day, and even though Islamic sharia insists that women have the right to ke ep their income, it appears that economises continue to control the decisions concerning expenditures. The hubby is pivotal in allowing his wife to work in the interest of the upbeat of the family, he is also the final arbiter in defining what constitutes that welfare. In many instances, go accepting that she may work outside the home, he will not allow her to participate in public events. As already noted, Oven the power of the constitutions of various countries affirming the determination of the sharia that men are in charge of women, there is little chance for change in the foreseeable future.Modernization and urbanization, however, have brought to the highest degree certain changes in family life. wizard is a preference for nuclear families. This has altered the traditional power of the mother-in-law which has been undermined by the new system. Instead of being a guest in her mother-in-laws home, the bride gets to be in charge of her own household. But, if she also has to go out to work in order to maintain private residence, her workload is doubled. In addition, the change in housing design from the traditional open courtyard with a garden and opening to the sky to the small apartment has confined the fair sex and restricted her contact with other members of the family as well as with nature. If her husband restricts her going out, she feels imprisoned and lacks contact with friends and intimate relations.Zine identifies what she sees as the cases for women, determined by the tripartite class structure of Arab society the working class, the middle class, and the upper class. In the working class, she says, a sharp distinction is made amidst feminine and masculine characteristics (Zine, 2006, p.19).ConclusionOne of the themes that emerges from contemporary writing about Muslim women is that of woman as victim of the experience of oppression in developing countries. The oppression is not unique to the Arab context but is a consequence of disempower ment and feelings of impotence. The condition of the woman serves to demonstrate the extremes of disempowerment. She has become the projection of the want of the society, shackled with the burden of failure and weakness. Her inherent worth is devalued in relation to her physique, intellect, gender, productivity, and status. At the same time, her habit as mother is symbolically elevated. Islam provides security and equivalence to the females and it has made many laws which secures the importance of females in this male dominant world.ReferencesAbu-Lughod, Lila 2002. Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving? anthropological Reflections on Cultural Relativism and Its Others. In American Anthropologist, Vol. 104, No. 3, pp. 783-790Afshar, Haleh 1996. Islam and Feminism An analysis of Political Strategies. In Feminism and Islam Legal and Literary Perspectives, ed. Mai Yamani. NY New York University Press, p.122-138Badran, Margot 1995. feminists, Islam and acres Gender and libbers, Islam, and Nation Gender and the Making of Modern Egypt. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press.Hamid, Shadi 2006. amid Orientalism and Posrmodernism the changing nature of Western Feminist thought towards the middle eastward, HAWWA 4,176-92.Mahmood, Saba 2005. Politics of Piety The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject (Princeton Princeton University Press).Mahmood, Saba 2006. Performativity, Agency, and the Feminist Subject, in (eds) Ellen Armour and Susan St. Ville, Bodily Citations Religion and Judith Butler (New York, capital of South Carolina Uni Press). ISBN 0-231-13407-XMajid, Anouar 1998. The Politics of Feminism in Islam, Signs, Vol. 23, No. 2, p. 321-361Martin F McLelland 2004 Re-placing queer studies reflections on the queer matters conference, in Inter-Asia Cultural Studies vol 6, number 2 299- 311.Talpade, Chandra 2003. Feminism without Borders Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity. Durham London Duke University Press. P.71Zine, Jasmine 2004. Creating a critical faith- mettled space for antiracist feminism, in diary of Feminist Studies in Religion. Vol. 20, No. 2, Pages 167-187Zine, Jasmine 2006. Between Orientalism and Fundamentalism The Politics of Muslim Womens Feminist Engagement, Muslim World Journal of Human Rights Vol. 3, p.19Public Health eject Analysis gagePublic Health Issue Analysis dopeENHANCING HEALTH AND WELLBEING ACROSS POPULATIONSINTRODUCTIONThe purpose of this essay is to let out a public wellness go forth related in my field. To relieve the discussion fume as a public wellness issue has been chosen. The holistic impact green goddess have on the wellbeing of an exclusive will be explored. The stage of change model and the intelligent Lives (2010) insurance will be explored in relation to ingest.The rationale for choosing this topic is because bullet is an important public health issue. The pot is very toxic to either human tissue it touches on its way into, through and out of the stag partys bod y (Ewles 2005). Smoking is considered as a health make because baccy smoke contains nicotine, a poisonous alkaloid, and other harmful substances such as carbon monoxide, acrolein, ammonia and tars.Gorvenment initiatives like the Public Health sporting Paper, choosing health Making Choices Easier (DH 2004) will be addressed. The nurses role and other professions involved will be highlighted .Confidentiality shall be maintained throughout this essay as prescribed by the Nursing and Midwifery Council (2008). The impact of tobacco plant fastball on public health extends beyond the bet effects on the individual smoker and their personal health, plus pickings into account the effect on their economic, environmental and social effects (Ewles 2005).). Smoking harms nearly every organ of the body thereby causing many diseases, reducing quality of life and life expectancy. Also it has been estimated that in England, 364,000 patients are admitted to NHS hospitals each year due to smokin g related diseases which translates into about 7,000 hospital admission per week and 1,000 admissions per day (ASH 2006). In the UK, smoking causes about a fifth of all deaths, approximately 114,000 each year, or so of which are wrong with an fairish of 21 years early (Ewles 2005). According to Peto et. al. (2003) cited in Ewles (2005), most premature deaths caused by smoking are Lung and coronary cancer, chronic clogging heart diseases and coronary heart diseases with 42800, 29100 and 30600 deaths respectively every year. In addition, smoking is known to also bring change magnituded risk of many enfeeble conditions like impotence, infertility, gum disease, asthma and psoriasis (Ewles 2005). Research has also shown that non-smokers are cast at risk by exposure to other masss smoke which is known as passive or involuntary smoking and is also referred to as second-hand smoke (SHS) or environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) (Cancer Research 2009).According to the Oxford Medical Compani on (1994) cited in the WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic 2008, tobacco is the only legally available consumer product which kills nation when it is used entirely as intended. Tobacco is the leading preventable cause of death in the World which causes one in ten deaths among adults worldwide and in 2005, tobacco caused about 5.4million deaths, an average of one death every six second Certain behaviors have been labeled as risky behaviors associated with negative health outcomes among which smoking is and which has been the type of UK national health strategies (Naidoo Wills 2005). Smoking causes about one fifth of all deaths in the UK, most of which are premature and has hugely significant impacts on the wider environment and community through causing air pollution, fires, litter and environmental damage (Ewles 2005).Prevalence of smoking among the low paid groups has been observed to be twice those of the affluent groups because of the great difficulty stack in the slig ht(prenominal) affluent groups experience in stopping smoking (Ewles 2005). Tobacco smoking is also widely recognized as a cause of health inequality in the UK because it is common among the deprived groups and also compromises the already poorer health of deprived population such as those that fall within the marginalized groups. Examples are commonwealth with mental problems and prisoners, who are more likely to smoke and less likely to have access to mainstream smoking cessation services (Ewles 2005). The mightiness of multiple deprivation ranks areas from the most deprived to the least deprived and the betting odds of smoking increases as deprivation in the area increases (The NHS Information centre 2008).Children smoke for all sorts of reasons. Some smoke to show their independence, others because their friends do while some smoke because adults tell them not to and others do smoke to embrace the example of role models. There is no single cause. Parents, brothers and sisters who smoke are a powerful influence. Also is the way it is been advertised and the tobacco companies protagonist sport which makes children want to try it (DH 1998). The problems of smoking during pregnancy are well-nigh related to health inequalities between those in need and the most advantaged. Women with partners in manual groups are more likely to smoke during pregnancy than those with partners in non-manual groups 26 per cent of women with partners in manual groups smoke during pregnancy, compared with 12 per cent with partners doing non-manual work (DH 1998).Health promotion is a complex activity and is difficult to define. Davies and Macdowall (2006) describe health promotion as any strategy or intervention that is designed to improve the health of individuals and its population. However maybe one of the most recognized definitions is that of the World Health Organizations who describes health promotion as a process of enabling people to increase control over their health and its determinants, and thereby improve their health (WHO 1986).If we look at this in relation to the nurses role in smoking cessation and giving advice to a patient, this can be seen as a positive concept in that with the availability of education together with support, the patient is then able to make an informed decision, and so creating empowerment and an element of self control. Bright (1997) supports this notion suggesting that empowerment is created when accurate information and knowledgeable advice is given, thus aiding the development of personal skills and self esteem.A full of life component of health promotion is health education which aims to change behavior by providing people with the knowledge and skills they require to make healthy decisions and enable them to fulfill their potential. whole Lives Healthy People (2010) highlight the vital role nurses play in the delivery of health promotion with limited attention on prevention at primary and secondary level s.Nurses have a wealth of skills and knowledge and use this knowledge to empower people to make lifestyle changes and choices. This encourages people to take charge of their own health and to increase feelings of personal autonomy (Christensen 2006). Smoking is one of the biggest threats to public health, therefore nurses are in a prime position to help people to quit by offering encouragement, provide information and refer to smoking cessation services.In 2010 the white paper Healthy Live Healthy People set out the government long term policy for improving public health and in 2011 a new tobacco control plan was published (Department of Health 2011). The Whitepaper Healthy Life Healthy People set out a range of measures aimed at preventing people from starting to smoke and helping them to stop, such as banning cigarettes advertisement on billboards, in size and action on tobacco step up (DH, 2011).WHO defines health promotion a process of enabling people to increase control over and to improve, their health. It implies that the ideology moves beyond a focus on individual behavior towards a wide range of social and environmental interventions. Naidoo and Wills (2010), states health promotion is based on theories about what influences peoples health and what are effective interventions or strategies to improve health.

Gene Therapy Methods and Delivery Systems

component Therapy Methods and pitching Systems agents the units of heredityThere dissolve be little doubt that the root word of the factor has been the central organizing theme of twentieth century biology philosopher and biochemist Lenny Moss cl projected in 2003. A agent is the basic unit of heredity in a living organism. components h old(a) the information to build and chief(prenominal)tain their jail cells and pass transmissible traits to offspring. In componentral limits, a ingredient is a segment of nucleic pungent that, taken as a whole, specifies a trait. The biological entity responsible for delimit traits was termed a gene, scarce the biological basis for inheritance remained unknown until desoxyribonucleic acid (Deoxyribonucleic acid) was identified as the communicable material in the 1940s. In cells, a gene is a portion of desoxyribonucleic acid that contains both cryptography sequences that govern what the gene does, and non-coding sequences that det ermine when the gene is active (expressed). When a gene is active, the coding and non-coding sequences argon copied in a process callight-emitting diode transcription, producing an ribonucleic acid (Ribonucleic acid) simulate of the genes information. RNA tush then direct synthesis of proteins via the genetic code. In early(a) cases, the RNA is mappingd directly, for example, as part of the ribosome. The molecules resulting from gene expression, whether RNA or protein, ar known as gene overlaps, and are responsible for the study and functioning of all living things. Every cell requires a force of genes that act as blueprints of all the proteins essential for its proper functioning.DNA is a linear polymer of deoxynucleotide monomers. chemically speaking, it has a stunt woman helical structure of deuce polynucleotide chains held together by hydrogen bonds between the complementary ancestor pairs of the nucleotide forsakes. Each nucleotide in DNA is comprised of three com ponents, a heterocyclic base, a sugar (2-deoxyribose) and a inorganic phosphate radical. The nucleotides in a polynucleotide chain are connected through phosphodiester bonds. The nitrogenous bases are of dickens types, namely, purine based adenine (A) guanine (G), and pyrimidine based cytosine (C) thymine (T). In DNA, base pairs form only between A T and G C and thus the base sequence of to each one single strand can be deduced from that of its complementary strand.Gene Therapy Molecular Bandage?Gene therapy is believed by many to be the therapy of the twenty first century because it aims to exterminate cause rather than symptoms of affections by expatriateing a normal functioning copy of the mutated gene and its associated regulatory elements into the cell nucleus (1-3). It is a technique whereby an polish off or a faulty gene is replaced by a workings gene, so that the body can make the correct enzyme or protein and therefore rid of the root cause of the disease. A po tential approach for treating genetic disorders is gene therapy. The well-nigh promising candidates for future gene therapy trials lead be single gene disorders like, cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, familial hypercholesterolemia, ADA deficiency, Gaucher disease, alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency and so forth Apart from these monogenic disorders, gene therapy also holds the potential of treating acquired diseases such as cancer, by inhibiting oncogene expression or by restoring tumour suppresser gene genes or through immunomodulation (i.e. by increasing immune receipt to tumor antigens). Cardiovascular diseases too remain as one of the to the highest degree hopeful targets for gene therapy because of the ready accessibility of the vascular system for gene tape drive (4).Types of Gene TherapyDepending on the type of cells into which genes are transferred a process popularly known as transfection. Gene therapy can be broadly buildify into two types Somatic cell Germline gene ther apy.Somatic Cell gene therapy This type of therapy involves the transfection of somatic (non-reproductive) cells in particular of those tissues in which expression of the concerned gene is critical for health. Expression of the introduced gene relieves/eliminates symptoms of the disorder, but this effect is non heritable.Germline gene therapy This type of therapy involves gene transfer into reproductive cells (egg or sperm cells). here(predicate) germ cells are modified by the admission of operable genes, which are ordinarily immixd into their genomes. It would change the genetic pool of the entire forgiving species, and future generations would study to live with thatchange.Depending upon the method of correcting the faulty gene, gene therapy can be classified into the followe categoriesGene augmentation therapy This type of therapy is the most suppress one for the treatment of inherited diseases caused by the loss of a functional gene. It involves supplementing the body c ells with a functional copy of the lost gene so that the missing protein is expressed at sufficient directs in the body. It is only sufficient if the pathogenic effects of the disease are reversible.Gene inhibition therapy Its aim is to introduce a gene whose product inhibits the expression of the pathogenic gene or interferes with the activity of its product (5).Suicide gene therapy This method is best(p) suited for a disease like cancer where the aim is to eliminate a certain population of cells. It involves the transfection of such cells with a suicide gene, whose product is toxic. The suicide genes should be appropriately targeted to avoid grandspread cell wipeout (6).Depending upon the mode of delivering genes into a forbearings body, gene therapy can be classified into the following two typesEx vivo gene therapy In ex vivo gene therapy, gene transfer occurs outside the patients body. This is once again sub-divided into two types viz, Autologous Non-autologous. Autologo us gene therapy involves the transfection of cells derived from the patient followed by the re-introduction of these cells into the patients body. Non-autologous gene therapy involves the transfection of cells non derived from the patients body.In vivo gene therapy In this method the redress gene is directly introduced into the body by injection or by inhalation with the tending of a appropriately designed vector.Gene Delivery Vectors Key to Success in Gene therapyGene therapy, as a novel therapeutic modality, holds enormous call up for the treatment of a multitude of human diseases. However, till date it has failed unluckily in spite ofmore than 1500 clinical trials completed or before great underway around the human beingness. The primary reason for the failure of the clinical achievement of gene therapy is the lack of efficient gene speech agents, commonly referred to as transfection vectors. However, since the biological cell surfaces are negatively depend upond ( r epayable to the presence of glycoproteins and glycolipids containing negatively charged sialic acid resiimputables on cell surface), spontaneous entry of polyanionic naked as a jaybird genes (DNA) into body cells is an inefficient process. Hence transfer vehicle or a vector in needed to condense the macromolecular DNA and to help it in crossing the plasma membrane barrier. Again delivery of therapeutic DNA to the desired body tissue is important to overcome unfavorable affects. In other words, the problems of developing clinically viable gene therapy methods and intent safe efficient gene delivery reagents are inseparable shortcomings in one is going to adversely affect the victor of the other. Hence, realization of the to the full potential of gene therapy will depend, in a study(ip) way, on the future study of safe and efficient gene delivery vectors.The specimen Vector A perfect or an ideal vector would fit a traditional pharmaceutic and should have the following charac teristics (a) should be confident of efficiently delivering to its target an expression cassette carrying one or more genes of the coat suitable for clinical application, (b) must not elicit an immune response, (c) should not induce fire and thus be safe for the recipient, (d) can be produced in bulk at an acceptable cost with reproducibility, (e) should be still on storage, and finally, it should express the gene (or genes) it carries for as long as required in a strictly regulated manner. No single vector before long procurable has all these desired properties and each vector presently in use has its own pros and cons. However, it is important to realize that there cannot be a universal vector, optimally useful for all gene therapy applications. This is due to the fact that each disease will have a unequaled set of technical requirements, and the perfect vector for a specific disease should be optimized in accordance with these requirements. For example, some diseases wil l require local anesthetic delivery of the transgene (e.g., ischemia, retinitis pigmentosa, parkinsons disease, etc.) while others likecancer and atherosclerosis necessitate systemic delivery. In some cases, only a transient, short-lived gene expression will be needed (e.g., therapeutic angiogenesis, cancer) while in monogenic disorders, such as familial hypercholesterolemia, hemophilia and SCID a long term (sometimes life long) gene expression is mandatory (1). The future clinical success of gene therapy will certainly depend on the uphill caper of designing tailor-made vector systems for the treatment of specific diseases.The efforts to design a perfect vehicle for the membrane-impermeable DNA have so far led to the development of many methods based on the principles of biology (viral vectors), physics (microinjection, electroporation, atom battery, hydrostatic pressure, and ultrasound) and chemistry (synthetic vectors like cationic lipids polymers). Each of these methods has i ts intrinsic advantages and disadvantages.viral Vectors Natures Own Infecting VehiclesViruses have evolved specific mechanisms through the eat of evolution to deliver their genetic material into innkeeper cells and then noblejack the cells biosynthetic machinery to produce new viral particles (7). Thus, owing to their natural ability to infect cells, they can be used as vectors in gene therapy by replacing the genes that are essential for procreation phase of their life cycle with the therapeutic genes of interest. Majority of the clinical trials currently underway around the world are based on the use of mainly five categories of viruses, namely, retrovirus, adenovirus, adeno-associated virus, lentivirus and herpes simplex virus.Retroviruses These are a class of enveloped viruses containing a single stranded RNA molecule ( about 10 kb). in spite of appearance the host cell, the RNA is reverse transcribed into double stranded DNA, which in turn integrates into the host genome and is expressed as viral proteins (8). These are the most promising and widely used viral vectors used for gene therapy applications to date.Advantages quickly dividing cancer cells can be targeted by using these viruses. Enters into cells efficiently and gives long lasting gene expression due to stable integration.Disadvantages Only infects dividing cells, subject of producing tumorigenic mutagenesis due to random integration, unable to deliver larger genomic sequences. Again, it can stack away the genetic material of the virus in any arbitrary dumbfound in the genome of the host- it randomly shoves the genetic material into a chromosome.Adenoviruses These are the jiffy most commonly used viruses for gene delivery. They carry a double stranded linear DNA chromosome of approximately 36 kb. Unlike retroviruses, adenoviruses deliver their genetic payload outside the chromosome and are thus less likely to disrupt the cells genome (9). But it is immunogenic and may cause inflamma tion and tissue damage.Adeno-associated viruses (AAV) They contain a single stranded DNA of approximately 4.7 kb surrounded by a protein coat (10) and can integrate at a specific site in human chromosome 19. AAV does not contain any viral genes and contains only the therapeutic gene and it does not integrate into the genome. It requires co-infection with a helper adenovirus for propagation. The advantage of AAV is that it is a non-pathogenic virus but the size for the exogenous DNA it can deliver is limited due to its smaller genome. The difficulty in large scale production is an surplus disadvantage.Envelope protein pseudo typing of viral vectors The envelope proteins on each of these viruses bind to cell-surface molecules make facile attachment to and entry into a subject cell. The potential for off-target cell modification would be limited, and many concerns from the medical familiarity would be alleviated.Although viruses are the most efficient gene transfer vehicles availabl e to date, their widespread clinical success has been impeded by the following major drawbacks(a) Viruses are notorious for eliciting an immune response which, apart from posing a serious threat to the host, also makes a second dose of the corresponding viral vector ineffective due to the production of high level of antibodies against the viral geomorphologic components following its initial administration. In 1999, the death of 18-year old Jesse Gelsinger, undergoing gene therapy for ornithine transcarboxylase deficiency, was believed to be triggered by a severe immune response to the adenoviral vector used.(b) Size restriction on the genetic material that can be encapsulated within the viral particles.(c) Possibility of random integration into host genome leading to the risk of inducing tumorigenic mutations(d) Purification of recombinant vector, verifying the sequence, transfecting the packaging cells, single out and titering the transgenic virus and finally transducing the tar get cells are time consuming and tire out intensive steps.Collectively, all of these complications associated with the use of viral vectors have prompted researchers around the world to develop artificial non-viral transfection vectors.Non-Viral MethodsAlthough the gene transfer efficacies of the viral vectors are unrivalled till date, the above mentioned serious immunogenic concerns associated with their use have led to the development of non-viral methods for gene therapy. The non-viral vectors offer many advantages over their viral counterparts including significantly scorn toxicity and immunogenicity, size independent transfer of nucleic acids, very low relative frequency of integration, relative ease of large-scale production, simpler quality control and substantially easier pharmaceutical and regulatory requirements. The non-viral transfection methods could be broadly classified into two types Physical methods and Chemical methods.Physical Methods for Gene Delivery Physica l methods involve the direct introduction of genes into the target cells or tissues thereby avoiding the introduction of any foreign fondness like a virus or a synthetic vector. Hence, no serious immunogenic concerns are associated with their application. The required genes are inserted via microinjection, electroporation or particle bombardment (gene gun).Microinjection In this method, the DNA is directly injected into the nuclei of target cells using a hunky-dory glass needle under microscope. Although this method is seductively simple, it is difficult to keep back clinically. While this method of gene transfer is nearly 100% efficient, it is exhausting and time-consuming, typically allowing only a a couple of(prenominal) hundred cells (Electroporation This technique involves the mental disturbance of the cell membrane by an electric pulse for a few microseconds resulting in the formation of transient pores thereby allowing the exogenous DNA to innovate the cell cytoplasm. Although there is no limit on the size of DNA that could be delivered via electroporation, the gene transfer efficiency is low and there is high incidence of cell death (12).Gene Gun In this method, plasmid DNA is coated onto micron size tungsten or opulent micro particles and then propelled into cells using either electrostatic force or gas (Helium) pressure. The high velocity results in some DNA being trapped by a few cells and then it may be expressed at sufficient levels. This technique is fast, simple and safe and has been successfully employed to deliver nucleic acids to cultured cells as well as to cells in vivo especially gene transfer to skin (13) and superficial wounds.Chemical Methods of Gene DeliveryDEAE-Dextran Diethylaminoethyl-dextran (DEAE-dextran) is a polycationic derivative of the carbohydrate polymer, dextran and was one of the first chemical reagents used for transfer of nucleic acids into mammalian cells (14). Owing to its positive charge, DEAE-dextran forms an electrostatic interlocking with the polyanionic DNA. This technique of delivering genes into cells is simple, reproducible and cost effective. However, it could prove toxic to the target cells especially when DMSO or glycerol is used as a supplementary chemical shock to increase gene transfer efficiency. Secondly, this method is not by and large useful for stable transfection studies that require integration of the transferred DNA into the chromosome. A major disadvantage of this method is its ability to transfect a limited variety of cells, e.g. phagocytic cells.Calcium Phosphate Calcium phosphate co-precipitation method for DNA delivery was first introduced by Graham and Van Der Eb in 1972 (15). This technique involves blend of DNA with calcium chloride and then carefully adding this mixture to a phosphate buffered saline solution followed by incubation at room temperature. The finely divided DNA containing precipitate thus formed is taken up by the cells via endocytosis or phagocytosis. The main advantages of the calcium phosphate method are its simplicity, low cost, and its applicability to a wide variety of cell types. Moreover, it could be used for transient as well as stable transfection studies. The main drawbacks of the technique involve its sensitivity to slight changes in buffer table salt concentrations, temperature, and pH, as well as its relatively poor transfection efficiency compared to newer transfection methods.cationic Polymers A wide range of organic polymers has been used for gene transfection, the most popular being polylysine polyethylenimine (PEI) (16). These have a high cationic charge density that condenses DNA into positively charged particles capable of interacting with anionic cell surfaces and entering cells via endocytosis. PEI also exhibits extensive buffering capacity across a wide range of pH which protects DNA inside the endosome from degradation via endosomal swelling and rupture. Dendrimers jibe another class of p olymers used for gene delivery. They consist of three-dimensional, bifurcated, branched structures called dendrons. The polyamidoamine (PAMAM) family of dendrimers has been shown to be very useful for transfection (17).Cationic Liposomes The Artificial Fat BubblesLiposomes, in general, have long been viewed as bio-compatible drug/gene delivery reagents owing to their structural similarity to cell membranes. They are spherical bilayers composed of individual lipids envelop a watery interior. Each lipid possesses a hydrophilic issue group attached via a linker to a large hydrophobic domain. When clear to an aqueous environment, these amphiphiles spontaneously form large spherical structures known as liposomes above a certain critical vesicular concentration (CVC). deep down the sphere, lipids are arranged back-to-back in bilayers with the polar hydrophilic group facing outwards shielding the hydrophobic domain from the aqueous solution. Liposomes may be unilamellar (composed of a single bilayer) or multilamellar (composed of many concentric bilayers). The multilamellar liposome (MLV) upon sonication followed by repeated extrusion through polycarbonate membranes of defined pore size develop the size of small unilamellar vesicle (SUV, 30-100 nm) or large unilamellar vesicle (LUV, 150-250 nm) (Figure 1).

Martin Luther King :: essays research papers

April 12, 2005 accord to Lewis, Martin Luther big businessman, JRs goals and tactics can be divided into two periods, out front Selma and after. The first period is distinguished by a decade of pioneering protest tactics in use to accomplish conventional citizenship rights for Afro-Americans. The atomic number 16, less than triple tumultuous years, was a time of nontraditional tactics in reckon of progressively more fundamental goals for the bigger society. The first was moderately triumphant, except its accomplishment highlighted what yet lingered to be done before the poor, the powerless, and the racially deprived could begin to attain equality of opportunity in America (Lewis, 245). The second period was distinct by comparative disappointment, and its heritage was the foresight of governmental power and economic welfare upon the poor, the powerless, and the racially disadvantaged. In the first period, King and his allies brought about the beginning of the violated communi ty. In the second, the distant scene of their adored society disappeared at Memphis. The magnitude of the decade ending with Selma was in the extensive repercussion of the protest (Lewis, 245).Martin Luther King, JR was chosen as leader for the capital of Alabama Improvement Association (MIA) over many other civil rights activists. non only was he probably the best person to lead their boycott, however he was the person best suited to become the leader of the larger struggle for racial rights (Lewis, 246) . For the Montgomerys Afro-Americans, in order to eliminate successfully, it must be nonviolent and passive. In 1956, King, along with several allies, entered a public bus in front of his house. It was the start of community harmony. stir by Kings personal courage, despite jeopardized jobs, intimidation by the Ku Klux Klan, and harassment by the police and bombs (Lewis, 246). A metropolis regulation was called upon to criminalize organized taxi transport of bus boycotters. Wi th money raised in the vicinity and from gradually increasing donations from national labor, libertarian, and religious organizations, the MIA bought many vehicles. The city wanted and got an accusation of King and more than eight other MIA members for cooking to intervene with standard business activity. Sentencing by the Montgomery court and prayer to the federal courts followed. Just as MIA leaders awaited the expected unfavorable decision from the municipal court on November 13, the U.S. Supreme Court positive Alabamas state and local laws enforcing segregation on buses unconstitutional (Lewis, 246) .